2020 Edition

Background

The Central African Republic (CAR) is a perennially weak state that sits at the crossroads of ethnic and linguistic groups in the center of the African continent. Among the last areas of Sub-Saharan Africa to be drawn into the world economy, its introduction into trade networks around the early 1700s fostered significant competition among its population. The local population sought to benefit from the lucrative Atlantic, trans-Saharan, and Indian Ocean trade in enslaved people and ivory. Slave raids aided by the local populations fostered animosity between ethnic groups that remains today. The territory was established as a French colony named Ubangui-Shari in 1903, and France modeled its administration of the colony after the Belgian Congo, subcontracting control of the territory to private companies that collected rubber and ivory. Although France banned the domestic slave trade in CAR in the 1910s, the private companies continued to exploit the population through forced labor. The colony of Ubangi-Shari gained independence from France as the Central African Republic in 1960, but the death of independence leader Barthelemy BOGANDA six months prior led to an immediate struggle for power. CAR’s political history has since been marred by a series of coups, the first of which brought Jean-Bedel BOKASSA to power in 1966. Widespread corruption and intolerance for any political opposition characterized his regime. In an effort to prolong his mandate, BOKASSA named himself emperor in 1976 and changed the country’s name to the Central African Empire. His regime’s economic mismanagement culminated in widespread student protests in 1979 that were violently suppressed by security forces. BOKASSA fell out of favor with the international community and was overthrown in a French-backed coup in 1979. After BOKASSA’s departure, the country’s name once again became the Central African Republic. CAR’s fifth coup in 2013 unseated President Francois BOZIZE after the Seleka, a mainly Muslim rebel coalition, seized the capital and forced BOZIZE to flee the country. The Seleka's widespread abuses spurred the formation of mainly Christian self-defense groups that called themselves the anti-Balaka, which have also committed human rights abuses against Muslim populations in retaliation. Since the rise of these groups, conflict in CAR has become increasingly ethnoreligious, although focused on identity rather than religious ideology. Elections in 2016 installed independent candidate Faustin-Archange TOUADERA as president; he was reelected in 2020. A peace agreement signed in 2019 between the government and the main armed factions has had little effect, and armed groups remain in control of large swaths of the country's territory. TOUADERA's United Hearts Movement has governed the country since 2016, and a new constitution approved by referendum on 30 July 2023 effectively ended term limits, creating the potential for TOUADERA to extend his rule.

Area

land

622,984 sq km

total

622,984 sq km

water

0 sq km

Area - comparative

slightly smaller than Texas; about four times the size of Georgia

Climate

tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers

Coastline

0 km (landlocked)

Elevation

highest point

Mont Ngaoui 1,410 m

lowest point

Oubangui River 335 m

mean elevation

635 m

Geographic coordinates

7 00 N, 21 00 E

Geography - note

landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa

Irrigated land

10 sq km (2012)

Land boundaries

border countries

Cameroon 901 km; Chad 1556 km; Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 487 km; South Sudan 1055 km; Sudan 174 km

total

5,920 km

Land use

agricultural land

9.1% (2023 est.)

agricultural land: arable land

arable land: 2.9% (2023 est.)

agricultural land: permanent crops

permanent crops: 1.4% (2023 est.)

agricultural land: permanent pasture

permanent pasture: 4.8% (2023 est.)

forest

72.5% (2023 est.)

other

18.4% (2023 est.)

Location

Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo

Major aquifers

Congo Basin, Lake Chad Basin

Major rivers (by length in km)

Oubangui (Ubangi) river [s] (shared with Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo [m]) - 2,270 km  note: [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Major watersheds (area sq km)

Atlantic Ocean drainage

Congo (3,730,881 sq km), (Mediterranean Sea) Nile (3,254,853 sq km)

Internal (endorheic basin) drainage

Lake Chad (2,497,738 sq km)

Map references

Africa

Maritime claims

none (landlocked)

Natural hazards

hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common

Natural resources

diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil, hydropower

Population distribution

majority of residents live in the western and central areas of the country, especially in and around the capital of Bangui, as shown in this population distribution map

Terrain

vast, flat to rolling plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest

Age structure

0-14 years

38.5% (male 1,113,795/female 1,063,971)

15-64 years

58% (male 1,613,770/female 1,662,522)

65 years and over

3.5% (2024 est.) (male 86,932/female 109,967)

Alcohol consumption per capita

beer

0.55 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

other alcohols

0.33 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

spirits

0.02 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

total

0.94 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

wine

0.04 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)

Birth rate

31.49 births/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Child marriage

men married by age 18

17.1% (2019)

women married by age 15

25.8% (2019)

women married by age 18

61% (2019)

Children under the age of 5 years underweight

18.4% (2022 est.)

Currently married women (ages 15-49)

65.4% (2019 est.)

Death rate

11.04 deaths/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Dependency ratios

elderly dependency ratio

6 (2025 est.)

potential support ratio

16.6 (2025 est.)

total dependency ratio

71.7 (2025 est.)

youth dependency ratio

65.7 (2025 est.)

Drinking water source

improved: rural

rural: 27.4% of population (2022 est.)

improved: total

total: 36.3% of population (2022 est.)

improved: urban

urban: 48.1% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: rural

rural: 72.6% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: total

total: 63.7% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: urban

urban: 51.9% of population (2022 est.)

Education expenditure

Education expenditure (% GDP)

1.8% of GDP (2023 est.)

Education expenditure (% national budget)

10% national budget (2023 est.)

Ethnic groups

Baya 28.8%, Banda 22.9%, Mandjia 9.9%, Sara 7.9%, M'Baka-Bantu 7.9%, Arab-Fulani (Peuhl) 6%, Mbum 6%, Ngbanki 5.5%, Zande-Nzakara 3%, other Central African Republic ethnic groups 2%, non-Central African Republic ethnic groups .1% (2003 est.)

Gross reproduction rate

1.92 (2025 est.)

Health expenditure

Health expenditure (as % of GDP)

9.1% of GDP (2021)

Health expenditure (as % of national budget)

9% of national budget (2022 est.)

Infant mortality rate

female

74.5 deaths/1,000 live births

male

86.4 deaths/1,000 live births

total

79.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2025 est.)

Languages

French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), tribal languages

Life expectancy at birth

female

57.7 years

male

55.1 years

total population

56.4 years (2024 est.)

Literacy

female

27.1% (2019 est.)

male

59.8% (2019 est.)

total population

42.4% (2019 est.)

Major urban areas - population

958,000 BANGUI (capital) (2023)

Maternal mortality ratio

692 deaths/100,000 live births (2023 est.)

Median age

female

21.2 years

male

19.7 years

total

20.6 years (2025 est.)

Nationality

adjective

Central African

noun

Central African(s)

Net migration rate

-3.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2025 est.)

Obesity - adult prevalence rate

7.5% (2016)

Physician density

0.07 physicians/1,000 population (2023)

Population

female

2,885,700

male

2,864,870

total

5,750,570 (2025 est.)

Population growth rate

1.74% (2025 est.)

Religions

Roman Catholic 34.6%, Protestant 15.7%, other Christian 22.9%, Muslim 13.8%, ethnic religionist 12%, Baha'i 0.2%, agnostic/atheist 0.7% (2020 est.)

Sanitation facility access

improved: rural

rural: 12.4% of population (2022 est.)

improved: total

total: 30.2% of population (2022 est.)

improved: urban

urban: 53.5% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: rural

rural: 87.6% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: total

total: 69.8% of population (2022 est.)

unimproved: urban

urban: 46.5% of population (2022 est.)

Sex ratio

0-14 years

1.05 male(s)/female

15-64 years

0.97 male(s)/female

65 years and over

0.79 male(s)/female

at birth

1.03 male(s)/female

total population

0.99 male(s)/female (2024 est.)

Total fertility rate

3.89 children born/woman (2025 est.)

Urbanization

rate of urbanization

3.32% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)

urban population

43.6% of total population (2023)

Administrative divisions

14 prefectures (préfectures, singular - préfecture), 2 economic prefectures* (préfectures économiques, singular - préfecture économique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Haute-Kotto, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo, Lobaye, Mambere-Kadei, Mbomou, Nana-Grebizi*, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha-Mbaere*, Vakaga

Capital

etymology

established as a French military post in 1889; the name means "rapids" in the local Bobangui language, because of the city's location above the first great rapid on the Ubangi River

geographic coordinates

4 22 N, 18 35 E

name

Bangui

time difference

UTC+1 (6 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

Citizenship

citizenship by birth

no

citizenship by descent only

least one parent must be a citizen of the Central African Republic

dual citizenship recognized

yes

residency requirement for naturalization

35 years

Constitution

amendment process

proposals require support of the government, two thirds of the National Council of Transition, and assent by the "Mediator of the Central African" crisis; passage requires at least three-fourths majority vote by the National Council membership; non-amendable constitutional provisions include those on the secular and republican form of government, fundamental rights and freedoms, amendment procedures, or changes to the authorities of various high-level executive, parliamentary, and judicial officials

history

several previous; latest constitution passed by a national referendum on 30 July 2023 and validated by the Constitutional Court on 30 August 2023

Country name

abbreviation

CAR

conventional long form

Central African Republic

conventional short form

none

etymology

self-descriptive name specifying the country's location on the continent; "Africa" is derived from the Roman designation of the area corresponding to present-day Tunisia, "Africa terra," which meant "Land of the Afri" (the tribe resident in that area), but which eventually came to mean the entire continent

former

Ubangi-Shari, Central African Empire

local long form

République centrafricaine

local short form

none

Diplomatic representation from the US

chief of mission

Ambassador (vacant); Chargé d’Affaires Melanie Anne ZIMMERMAN (since July 2025)

email address and website

https://cf.usembassy.gov/

embassy

Avenue David Dacko, Bangui

FAX

[236] 2161-4494

mailing address

2060 Bangui Place, Washington DC 20521-2060

telephone

[236] 2161-0200

Diplomatic representation in the US

chancery

2704 Ontario Road NW, Washington, DC 20009

chief of mission

Ambassador Martial NDOUBOU (since 17 September 2018)

email address and website

centrafricwashington@yahoo.com https://www.usrcaembassy.org/

FAX

[1] (202) 332-9893

telephone

[1] (202) 483-7800

Executive branch

cabinet

Council of Ministers appointed by the president

chief of state

President Faustin-Archange TOUADÉRA (since 30 March 2016)

election results

2025: Faustin-Archange TOUADÉRA reelected president in first round; percent of vote - Faustin-Archange TOUADÉRA (independent) 76.2%, Anicet Georges DOLOGUELE (URCA) 14.7%, other 9.1%

election/appointment process

current president was directly elected for 5-year term; constitutional referendum in July 2023 removed term limits and instituted 7-year terms

expected date of next election

December 2032

head of government

Prime Minister Félix MOLOUA (since 7 February 2022)

most recent election date

28 December 2025

Flag

description: four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in the center; a five-pointed yellow star sits in the top left corner of the flag, on the blue band meaning: combines the pan-African and French flag colors; red stands for blood spilled in the struggle for independence, blue for the sky and freedom, white for peace and dignity, green for hope and faith, and yellow for tolerance; the star represents aspiring to a vibrant future

Government type

presidential republic

Independence

13 August 1960 (from France)

International law organization participation

has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; accepts ICCt jurisdiction

International organization participation

ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, EITI (compliant country) (suspended), FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), LCBC, MIGA, NAM, OIC (observer), OIF, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

Judicial branch

highest court(s)

Supreme Court or Cour Supreme (number of judges unknown); Constitutional Court (consists of 9 judges, at least 3 of whom are women)

judge selection and term of office

Supreme Court judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court judge appointments - 2 by the president, 1 by the speaker of the National Assembly, 2 elected by their peers, 2 are advocates elected by their peers, and 2 are law professors elected by their peers; judges serve 7-year non-renewable terms

subordinate courts

high courts; magistrates' courts

Legal system

civil law system based on the French model

Legislative branch

electoral system

plurality/majority

expected date of next election

28 December 2025

legislative structure

unicameral

legislature name

National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)

most recent election date

12/27/2020 to 7/25/2021

number of seats

140 (all directly elected)

parties elected and seats per party

United Hearts Movement (MCU) (63); National Movement of Independents (MOUNI) (9); Union for Central African Renewal (URCA) (7); Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People (MLPC) (7); Other (34); Independents (20)

percentage of women in chamber

11.4%

scope of elections

full renewal

term in office

5 years

National anthem(s)

history

adopted 1960; BOGANDA wrote the anthem's lyrics and was the first prime minister of the autonomous French territory

lyrics/music

Barthelemy BOGANDA/Herbert PEPPER

title

"La Renaissance" (The Renaissance)

National color(s)

blue, white, green, yellow, red

National heritage

selected World Heritage Site locales

Manovo-Gounda St. Floris National Park; Sangha Trinational Forest

total World Heritage Sites

2 (natural)

National holiday

Republic Day, 1 December (1958)

National symbol(s)

elephant

Political parties

Action Party for Development or PAD African Party for Radical Transformation and Integration of States or PATRIE Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP Be Africa ti e Kwe (also known as Central Africa for Us All or BTK) Central African Democratic Rally or RDC Central African Party for Integrated Development or PCDI Democratic Movement for the Renewal and Evolution of Central Africa or MDREC Kodro Ti Mo Kozo Si Movement or MKMKS Movement for Democracy and Development or MDD Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People or MLPC National Convergence (also known as Kwa Na Kwa or KNK) National Movement of Independents or MOUNI National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP National Union of Republican Democrats or UNADER New Impetus for Central Africa or CANE Party for Democracy and Solidarity - Kélémba or KPDS Party for Democratic Governance or PGD Path of Hope or CDE Renaissance for Sustainable Development or RDD Socialist Party or PS Transformation Through Action Initiative or ITA Union for Central African Renewal or URCA Union for Renaissance and Development or URD United Hearts Movement or MCU

Suffrage

18 years of age; universal

Agricultural products

cassava, groundnuts, yams, coffee, maize, sesame seeds, taro, sugarcane, beef, milk (2023)

Budget

expenditures

$462.104 million (2021 est.)

revenues

$360.48 million (2021 est.)

Debt - external

Debt - external 2023

$724.179 million (2023 est.)

Economic overview

enormous natural resources; extreme poverty; weak public institutions and infrastructure; political and gender-based violence have led to displacement of roughly 25% of population; Bangui-Douala corridor blockade reduced activity and tax collection; strong agricultural performance offset COVID-19 downturn

Exchange rates

Currency

Cooperation Financiere en Afrique Centrale francs (XAF) per US dollar -

Exchange rates 2020

575.586 (2020 est.)

Exchange rates 2021

554.531 (2021 est.)

Exchange rates 2022

623.76 (2022 est.)

Exchange rates 2023

606.57 (2023 est.)

Exchange rates 2024

606.345 (2024 est.)

Exports

Exports 2022

$293.074 million (2022 est.)

Exports 2023

$369.034 million (2023 est.)

Exports 2024

$425.306 million (2024 est.)

Exports - commodities

gold, wood, diamonds, vehicle parts/accessories, cotton (2023)

Exports - partners

UAE 54%, China 14%, France 6%, Turkey 5%, Belgium 4% (2023)

GDP - composition, by end use

exports of goods and services

15.5% (2024 est.)

government consumption

9.7% (2024 est.)

household consumption

94.7% (2024 est.)

imports of goods and services

-32.4% (2024 est.)

investment in fixed capital

15.4% (2024 est.)

investment in inventories

0% (2024 est.)

GDP - composition, by sector of origin

agriculture

32.5% (2024 est.)

industry

17.8% (2024 est.)

services

40.5% (2024 est.)

GDP (official exchange rate)

$2.752 billion (2024 est.)

Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income

Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income 2021

43 (2021 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share

highest 10%

33.1% (2021 est.)

lowest 10%

2.1% (2021 est.)

Imports

Imports 2022

$784.669 million (2022 est.)

Imports 2023

$742.108 million (2023 est.)

Imports 2024

$890.572 million (2024 est.)

Imports - commodities

refined petroleum, cars, packaged medicine, vaccines, tanks and armored vehicles (2023)

Imports - partners

China 16%, Cameroon 14%, France 8%, Belgium 6%, Cote d'Ivoire 5% (2023)

Industrial production growth rate

9.7% (2024 est.)

Industries

gold and diamond mining, logging, brewing, sugar refining

Inflation rate (consumer prices)

Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2021

4.3% (2021 est.)

Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2022

5.6% (2022 est.)

Inflation rate (consumer prices) 2023

3% (2023 est.)

Labor force

2 million (2024 est.)

Population below poverty line

68.8% (2021 est.)

Public debt

Public debt 2016

56% of GDP (2016 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2022

$5.795 billion (2022 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2023

$5.836 billion (2023 est.)

Real GDP (purchasing power parity) 2024

$5.926 billion (2024 est.)

Real GDP growth rate

Real GDP growth rate 2022

0.5% (2022 est.)

Real GDP growth rate 2023

0.7% (2023 est.)

Real GDP growth rate 2024

1.5% (2024 est.)

Real GDP per capita

Real GDP per capita 2022

$1,100 (2022 est.)

Real GDP per capita 2023

$1,100 (2023 est.)

Real GDP per capita 2024

$1,100 (2024 est.)

Remittances

Remittances 2021

0% of GDP (2021 est.)

Remittances 2022

0% of GDP (2022 est.)

Remittances 2023

0% of GDP (2023 est.)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold 2021

$483.872 million (2021 est.)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold 2022

$374.405 million (2022 est.)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold 2023

$479.593 million (2023 est.)

Taxes and other revenues

8.2% (of GDP) (2021 est.)

Unemployment rate

Unemployment rate 2022

6% (2022 est.)

Unemployment rate 2023

5.9% (2023 est.)

Unemployment rate 2024

5.9% (2024 est.)

Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)

female

10.6% (2024 est.)

male

8.5% (2024 est.)

total

9.5% (2024 est.)

Coal

imports

1 metric tons (2023 est.)

proven reserves

3 million metric tons (2023 est.)

Electricity

consumption

132.105 million kWh (2023 est.)

installed generating capacity

63,000 kW (2023 est.)

transmission/distribution losses

10 million kWh (2023 est.)

Electricity access

electrification - rural areas

1.6%

electrification - total population

15.7% (2022 est.)

electrification - urban areas

34.7%

Electricity generation sources

fossil fuels

0.8% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)

hydroelectricity

99.2% of total installed capacity (2023 est.)

Energy consumption per capita

Total energy consumption per capita 2023

954,000 Btu/person (2023 est.)

Petroleum

refined petroleum consumption

2,000 bbl/day (2023 est.)

Broadband - fixed subscriptions

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

(2022 est.) less than 1

total

1,000 (2022 est.) Data available for 2019 only.

Broadcast media

government-owned network, Radiodiffusion Télévision Centrafricaine, provides limited TV broadcasting; state-owned radio network is supplemented by a small number of privately owned broadcast stations, as well as a few community radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2017)

Internet country code

.cf

Internet users

percent of population

8% (2019 est.)

Telephones - fixed lines

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

(2022 est.) less than 1

total subscriptions

2,090 (2022 est.)

Telephones - mobile cellular

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants

39 (2022 est.)

total subscriptions

1.98 million (2022 est.)

Airports

43 (2025)

Civil aircraft registration country code prefix

TL

Military - note

the Central African Armed Forces (FACA) are focused on internal security; since the 2013 coup, multiple armed groups have been active in the country, carrying out attacks, controlling territory, and undermining security; the coup resulted in the institutional collapse of the FACA; its forces were overwhelmed and forced to flee to neighboring countries; it has been estimated that only 10% of the FACA returned afterwards; over the past decade, the FACA has sought to rebuild with considerable foreign assistance, including from France, the EU, Russia, Rwanda, Uganda, and the UN; Russian private military contractors and Rwandan military forces have assisted the FACA in its operations against rebel groups the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) has operated in the country since 2014; its mission includes providing security, protecting civilians, facilitating humanitarian assistance, disarming and demobilizing armed groups, and supporting the country’s transitional government (2025)

Military and security forces

Central African Armed Forces (Forces Armees Centrafricaines, FACA): Army (includes an air squadron, Escadrille Centrafricaine) Ministry of Interior: National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie Nationale), National Police (2025)

Military and security service personnel strengths

estimated 10-15,000 active FACA (2025)

Military equipment inventories and acquisitions

most of the military's heavy weapons and equipment were lost during the 2012–2014 civil war; prior to the war, most of its inventory was of French, Russian, or Soviet origin; in recent years, it has received some donated equipment from China and Russia, including armored vehicles, drones, helicopters, jet trainer aircraft, and some light weapons (2025)

Military expenditures

Military Expenditures 2020

1.8% of GDP (2020 est.)

Military Expenditures 2021

1.8% of GDP (2021 est.)

Military Expenditures 2022

1.7% of GDP (2022 est.)

Military Expenditures 2023

1.8% of GDP (2023 est.)

Military Expenditures 2024

2.5% of GDP (2024 est.)

Military service age and obligation

18-22 years of age for voluntary military service for men and women; no conscription although the constitution provides for the possibility of conscription in the event of an imminent threat to the country (2025)

Refugees and internally displaced persons

IDPs

469,342 (2024 est.)

refugees

53,378 (2024 est.)

Carbon dioxide emissions

from petroleum and other liquids

313,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)

total emissions

313,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)

Environmental issues

water pollution; tap water not potable; poaching; wildlife mismanagement; desertification; deforestation; soil erosion

International environmental agreements

party to

Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 2006, Wetlands

signed, but not ratified

Law of the Sea

Particulate matter emissions

25.5 micrograms per cubic meter (2019 est.)

Total renewable water resources

141 billion cubic meters (2022 est.)

Total water withdrawal

agricultural

400,000 cubic meters (2022 est.)

industrial

12 million cubic meters (2022 est.)

municipal

60.1 million cubic meters (2022 est.)

Waste and recycling

municipal solid waste generated annually

1.106 million tons (2024 est.)

percent of municipal solid waste recycled

9.1% (2022 est.)