Ancient Egypt (c. 3100–30 BCE) was one of the most enduring civilizations in human history. Centered along the fertile banks of the Nile River, Egyptian civilization produced monumental architecture including the Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx, developed hieroglyphic writing, advanced mathematics and medicine, and created a complex religious system centered on the afterlife. The civilization went through periods of unity (Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms) and fragmentation, culminating in absorption by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE after Cleopatra's death.